The quantitative data analysis

The quantitative data analysis Quantitative data analysis has been an inevitable part of social science research. Like any other discipline, the theories are taught to students to give them an idea and generalisation of social facts and books, journals and other sources are used for the same. However, at times these sources are not adequate and research needs to be done in order to gain a deeper knowledge. That is when quantitative data analysis comes into picture. There have been questions raised on the need to study quantitative data analysis with the emergence of importance of qualititative data (Bryman 1988a), but the formers importance has waned little. It helps that a larger proportion of empirical research that is conducted draws upon quantitative data. The research design for any research study undertaken includes the method that needs to be applied for the purpose of collecting and analysing data. Data collection can be done two ways- primary collection and secondary analysis of data. When the researcher collects data on their own for the sole purpose of the research that they are conducting, they are making use of primary data collection. The procedures used in these collection best suits the research problem at hand. The secondary analysis of data involves collecting data for a different research purpose but that is reused for the present research question. Primary and Secondary Data As explained before, data collected for the specific problem, primary data involves addition of new data to the existing store of knowledge surrounding the research area. When this material is used by other researchers, then this becomes secondary. Hox and Boeije (2005) maintain that the primary data can be used for: Description of contemporary and historical attribute, Comparative research or replication of original research, Reanalysis for the purpose of asking new questions which were not addressed originally, Research design and methodological advancement and lastly for 5. Teaching and learning Secondary analysis utilises the existing data, collected for the purposes of a prior study, in order to pursue a research interest which is distinct from that of the original work (Heaton 2002). Secondary data analysis is usually made of quantitative data where the information is made of researched objects whose characteristics have been coded in variables that can have a range of values. In fact, secondary analysis of quantitative data is common but the practice is not the same when it comes to qualitative data (Hinds, Vogel and Clarke-Steffen 1997). Strengths and Weaknesses Social science researchers undertaking research have a choice of opting to go for primary data- information that they need to collect by themselves or for secondary- searching for data that relates to the research problem in hand. There are distinct pros and cons of going for both. In this section, we will discuss what advantages or disadvantages the researcher faces when using any of these data collection methods. One of the important advantages of going the way of primary data collection is that making use of the theoretical constructs, research design and the data collection strategy can be built with the research question in mind. This will ensure that the research study is coherent and the data collected is distinctly relevant to the problem at hand. A disadvantage lies in the fact that primary data collection can be quite time consuming and expensive affair and considering the limitations of certain research study in terms of time and budget, primary data collection might not be a viable option for many researchers. Another aspect of primary data collection is in its error inducing nature. Sampling errors made by inefficient field workers can skew up the research. Some of the prominent data collection methods in primary data are: experiments, surveys like interviews, mail and web surveys. In the case of the experiment, the researcher is able to have a control on who participates in the research and the research situation being under the researchers control means that there is strong control of design and procedure permitting causal interpretation of the results. Thus the ability to have some control may be a distinct advantage for primary data, however this can turn into a disadvantage too as one might say that the researchers control has made the research artificial. In an experimental laboratory, variables are easily manageable and there is no place for the circumstantial issues that dominate in everyday life. While conducting surveys, the researcher is able to gather both subjective as well as objective characteristics of the population. If interview questions are carefully designed, evaluated and tested, surveys are a very method to obtain first-hand valid responses from respondents. Effectively, this leads us to understanding of the advantage of secondary data analysis. Secondary data is far easier to collect and is less expensive and the access to relevant information is faster. The disadvantage lies in the fact that secondary data was collected originally for a different purpose and therefore might not be optimal for the research problem that is being considered. Heaton points out another argument favouring the use of secondary data analysis stating that it can be used to generate new knowledge, new hypotheses supporting an existing theory and it also reduces the burden that is placed on respondents (for primary data collection) by removing the need to further recruit subjects thus allowing a wider use of data from rare and inaccessible respondents. Not all social research problems can allow the usage of secondary analysis. It has been determined that it is more convenient for certain researchers, namely students and in some cases by researchers re-using their own data rather than by independent analysts. (Szabo and Strang 1997). In their own right secondary data analysis is an effective tool in teaching as it helps in introducing students to a discipline and provides a supplement to the process of teaching (Sobal 1982). But the cons behind using the same are numerous. The researcher will need to locate the source of data that is more relevant to the study and this can be time consuming as pointed out earlier. The researcher should also be able to retrieve the data, which at times can be difficult. Also, the data should be able to meet the quality requirements of the present research. Besides, the reliability of the secondary data is also a major function of the organisation that gathers, organises and publishes the data. Another crippling factor that arises in the use of secondary analysis is that it differs from systematic reviews and the meta-analyses of qualitative studies that aim towards compiling and assessing the evidence relating to a common research concern or area of practice (Popay, Rogers and Williams 1998). An issue that doesnt come in forefront when discussing secondary analysis is the principle of ethics behind using it. In using sensitive data, the researcher cannot assume informed consent. A professional judgement needs to be made about the usage of the secondary data and whether that violates any contract between the researchers and the original researcher (Hinds, Vogel and Clarke-Steffen 1997). Conclusion In conclusion, one may say that there are several advantages and disadvantages of secondary data analysis to collection of ones own primary data, and its usage is best suited to some research issues. But secondary data analysis is a valuable asset as they can act as a model for the collection of primary data. Suffice it to say that there might not be a need to choose between primary data and secondary data analysis at all, as the researcher can easily incorporate both in their research to gain a degree of balance between their strengths and weaknesses. What is most important is that both primary as well as secondary data should be accurate, reliable, appropriate, valid, precise and timely. References: Bryman, A. 1988), Quantity and Quality in Social Research, London: Routledge Heaton, L; Secondary analysis of qualitative data, 2003, in R. Miller and J. Brewer (eds.) The A-Z of Social Research, Sage, pp 285-288 Hinds, P.S., Vogel, R.J., Clarke-Steffen, L. (1997) The possibilities and pitfalls of doing a secondary analysis of a qualitative data set, Qualitative Health Research, vol. 7(3): 408-24. Hox, J.J. and Boeije, H.R. (2005). Data collection, primary versus secondary. in K. Kempf-Leonard (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, pp. 593-599 Popay, J., Rogers, A., Williams, G. (1998) Rationale and standards for the systematic review of qualitative literature in health services research, Qualitative Health Research, vol. 8 (3): pp. 329-40 Sobal, J. 1982, The Role of Secondary Data Analysis in Teaching the Social Sciences, Library Trends, vol. 30, n3, p479-88. Szabo, V. and Strang, V.R. (1997) Secondary analysis of qualitative data, Advances in Nursing Science, vol. 20(2): 66-74.

Research Methods in Nursing and Social Work

Research methods in Nursing and Social Work: Critical appraisal paper. The aim of this assignment is to look at two written research papers and carry out a critical assessment on them. I will present the assignment in two parts, Appendix 1 which is the first research paper called, â€Å"What professionals think about offenders with learning disabilities in the criminal justice system†. This article conducts a research and its aim is to find out whether people with learning disabilities are being treated differently with the justice system, it focuses on the ideas of different professionals that work in the system and their view on the subject matter. Appendix 2 which is the second paper is called, â€Å"The prevalence of intellectual disability in a major UK prison†. This paper the first steps to undertake when critiquing a research paper is, to explain the piece by summarising its main aims and outcomes that have been gained through the research. One of the first tasks of critiquing a research article is to try to explain the performance and tasks that have taken place. Critiquing research involves a careful examination of all aspects of a study in order to judge its strengths, limitations, meaning and significance† (Hek, 1996). Appendix 1: Participants: The study was structured in a interview in order to collect the data. The Participants that were used all came from different professional background this meant that there was a good multidisciplinary team of respondents. Title: The title was very clear and to the point, it successfully reflects the purpose of the study and its findings. Abstract/Summary: This was written in a clear manner, which was very easy to understand and therefore was not complicated. The purpose, method and findings were comprehensibly outlined in a brief summary. Materials: The interview was Semi-structured, the advantages of using this method were that, the audience is specifically targeted it is also the best way to capture how a person thinks or feels on a particular topic, it can let the interviewee speak with more than just their words but with facial and bodily xpression too. Also, it allows the interviewee to go into as much depth as they feel they want to, whereas other interview types wouldn’t allow this type of freedom. It can also be a good method as it can lead to further questions that haven’t been written down but might be appropriate, so as to get a better perspective. The method is really suitable to sensitive issues as this one. However, there are draw-backs to the method, the main being that it is so time-consuming. Not just the collecting of the data, but the transcribing and analysis of the data. Also, it is very easy to digress and become sidetracked with anecdotes and generally inappropriate information. The preparation and time must be put into the organisation of this type of interview, to make sure that the questions that are asked are relevant to the subject matter and that they are neither confusing nor leading. Data collection: The data collection used Semi-structured interviews which were conducted in a face to face manner. The timings on the collection of data varied so that they suited the respondents, this was good as it allowed the respondents to do the interview when they were available this showed that the researchers where flexible. The duration of the actual interview where between, 0. 5 hr and 2. 5 hr, which was approximately 1 hr each, this was a weakness because it was important that each respondent had the equal and same amount of duration within the interview, and that by varying the times allowed some respondents to produce more information or answer questions in more depth as others. The interviews were recorded on tape this was good method of recording because sometimes when the information is written it can be translated different by the person who is recording the answers as they may interpret it differently. The other drawback that occurred in this study is that the exact design of the questions been asked to the respondents varied, this can affect the results as one person may elaborate more than someone else and therefore has the opportunity to be asked further questions. The exact format of each individual was determined by the participant, as the individual questions presented to each person varied according to earlier individual responses. † (Appendix 1) Results: The results obtained where accurate and well organised into three themes. They where clear to understand and very straightforward. The themes that emerged allowed the aim of the study to be acknowledged through its results, this was the most important part of any study. Discussion:  The idea of training for the Medical teams and professionals within the justice system is an excellent way to improve the awareness of learning disabilities and so that within the justice system it van be recognised and therefore allows a better awareness of it. The resolution to not change laws but however to accommodate them so that they reflect the needs of people with learning disabilities is also a very positive result. The fact that all participants had an interest in the study of people with learning disabilities which is why they accepted to be a part of the study. However the results varied in ethical values and opinions on that subject matter by the participants. Ethical: The research produced an ethical approval to proceed with the study from the research ethics committee at the University of Nottingham, this showed that the study was carefully thought of and recognised before it was conducted. The confidentiality of all the participants was kept, as all the respondents names were not identified anywhere in the study. Even though the details of the participants background and profession where mentioned this was carefully demonstrated as to not be able to identify any of the individuals. References http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/critique-mental-health http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/2981/1/Developing_a_framework_for_critiquing_health_research.pdf

Benefits Of High Risk Pools - 1679 Words

Health insurance high risk pools have been mentioned by President Trump and Congressional Republicans as a potential element of their Obamacare replacement plans, but they are not a new idea. Past experience with high risk pools suggests that they can help to address issues of affordability, stability, and fairness in the individual health insurance market. However, to do so, they must be adequately publicly subsidized and have benefit designs and cost-sharing structures that are comparable to health insurance products available on the open market. High risk pools were initially one of the options that states could adopt under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) for ensuring portability from the group health†¦show more content†¦This arrangement works because the insurance company is able to pool risks from lots of different individuals or organizations. As long as the risks are uncorrelated, the likely cost associated with the pooled risk is much more predictable than for the un-pooled risk. Many people in the U.S. receive health insurance through their employers, which operate as natural groups to gather individuals into pools. Since most people do not select jobs to get health insurance coverage, there is little reason to believe that the incidence of health care costs for the individuals in the groups established through employment arrangements will be correlated. The individual health insurance market, on the other hand, is referred to in industry jargon as the ‘non-group’ market for a reason. There is no natural group for aggregating individuals into a pool that is established for reasons other than purchasing insurance. There is also reason to believe that the set of individuals seeking to purchase individual/non-group health insurance does not represent a representative sample of the population with respect to health status. The individual health insurance market is bedeviled by certain empirical realities about health care spending, and characteristics of health insurance markets – the distribution of health care spending is highly skewed, health insurance has aShow MoreRelatedRisk Pooling in Health Care1670 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿ Risk Pooling in Health Care Finance Kiran Charania April 26, 2012 Risk pooling is a mechanism where revenue and contributions are pooled so that the risk of having to pay for health care is not borne by each contributor individually. Risk pooling is a form of risk management practiced by the health industry especially insurance companies. While risk pooling is necessary for insurance to work, not all risks can be effectively pooled. Pooling risks together allows the costsRead MoreHealthcare Systems And Health Insurance1583 Words   |  7 Pagesneed for healthcare continues to grow, health insurance companies can take steps now to prevent losses in the future. Such steps include: creating flexible plans that change for individuals as they age, raising premiums for individuals with especially high medical costs, shifting the focus of funds from health plans that enroll relatively healthy people to plans that enroll less healthy populations, carefully investing more money, and making minimum basic coverage less expensive for all individuals.Read More The Impact Of Technology In The Capital Market?1024 Words   |  5 PagesAs technology becomes more prevalent in financial markets, regulators and investors are faced with new challenges that offer opportunities to shape capital market structure for years to come. The introduction of high-frequency trading has introduced new systems to financial markets, allowing for new and unique ways for firms to achieve profits. These trading firms develop algorithms with the purpose of exploiting developing trends and mispricings. Algorithmic traders found a niche in the capitalRead MoreBuilding A New Pool At The Pendleton Aquatic Center1296 Words   |  6 PagesCommunity College opened up their pool for use of two more years by the local swim teams. This summer, the local swim teams including Pendleton High School, Hermiston High School and the town club, Pendleton Swim Association were concerned they would not have a pool for this winter’s season and for future seasons. After attendi ng many conferences meetings and fighting for their pool, the swim teams managed to persuade the college board to keep the Pendleton campus pool open for two more years. With theseRead MoreBenefits of Swimming1646 Words   |  7 Pagesresults in more nutrients being delivered to them. It decreases risks of cardiovascular diseases like high blood pressure ands prevents obesity when calories are being burnt during your workout sessions. Always remember to warm up before a proper swimming workout session. 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Before 2014, 18 states did not support Obamacare because they did not want to run high risk pools in their state. Starting in 2014 people did have to have the high risk pools regardless of them supporting the bill or not. A lot of states were concerned that if funds run out there can be difficult political choices as a repercussion. These repercussions will include things reducing benefits, raising premiums, or limiting enrollment. These are valid issues, but I feel that we are in thisRead MoreDark Pool Trading1303 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Price formation Impact on other market users Possible market abuse â€Æ' INTRODUCTION Turning from the venue of block order trades to a high-frequency trading spot of smaller and medium size orders, dark pools are now being questioned for their initial purpose and if their presence is lowering the market quality. Dark pool trading occurs when the client is submitting an order or a buy without stating his side, nor the size and price of the share. Therefore, he makes an anonymousRead MoreThe American Health Reform Act1596 Words   |  7 Pageswell high quality health care (â€Å"American Health Care Act†, 2013). Second, it will allow citizens to â€Å"purchase insurance across state lines, using interstate competition to drive down health care costs, while also reforming medical malpractice laws to help reduce unnecessary costs on both doctors and patients† (â€Å"American Health Care Act†, 2013). This will also help small businesses to come together to get the same buying power as big corporations. AHRA help funds people that are in high risk poolRead MoreTalent Acquisition And Retention For The Business World1684 Words   |  7 Pages Attracting the right talent and the ability to retain these employees is vital to the success of any company. Failure to attract and retain the right talent created high employee turnover affecting the business financially. The company will have to invest in recruiting, training, and benefits just to name a few. In addition, high employee turnover diminishes employee morale and affects company culture, which in the long run, decreases productivity due to poor workforce performance and thus, profits

A Comparison For Variable Cost And Absorption Costing

I have attached an analysis for your review. This analysis reflects a comparison for Variable Cost and Absorption costing using Sales: 60,000 units Production: 80,000 units Ending Inventory: 20,000 units Based on these analyses I have made several recommendations along with pros and cons to aid in the decision-making process. I recommend that we use absorption costing over variable costing. Absorption costing is a method where â€Å"†¦fixed manufacturing costs are inventoriable costs† (Datar, et al, 2009). That is, inventory â€Å"absorbs† all manufacturing costs. In the absorption metho there does not need to be a distinction between fixe and variable costs. Per the analyses performed on the attached spreadsheets one can see that the†¦show more content†¦We should experience some of the following positives after implementing JIT: Supply Chain Management: The JIT inventory model may assist in being more efficient in the way we handle supply chains and use our parts to assemble products. We can provide lower costs throughout the manufacturing process; which can be passed on to our customers. With our lower costs, we could produce a more affordable product for our customers and thereby help to stay ahead of our competitors. Reduction of Waste: By maintaining our current method we are housing products that go unused and/or become obsolete. This causes us to sell product at a reduced price often less than cost or we must dump the product with no money gained at all. The JIT inventory model should help to address this situation and by housing fewer products in the warehouses we could address our customer needs quicker and be open to customized orders. Reduction in Warehouse Costs: It can be costly to keep excess inventory on hand. By moving to JIT we may be able to reduce the number of warehouses we currently have as well as eliminate excess storage. Improved Customer Relations: Adopting the JIT model will allow for better servicing of our customers. Having greater control of the manufacturing process will make it easier to respond to our customers’ needs and any changes they may have or require. While I have high-lited the positives above we must also consider possible negative aspects. †¢Show MoreRelatedModule 1 Case Absorption vs. Variable Costing1401 Words   |  6 PagesThis case study will look at Jokkmok Industries and one of its managers, Mr. Rosen, who is bucking for a promotion to CEO. His division uses absorption costing and has the ability to produce 50,000 units a quarter with a fixed overhead amount of $600,000. While the sales forecast shows that the company will only sell 25,000 units during each of the next two quarters, Mr. Rosen wants to double his budgeted production for the second quarter from 25,000 to 50,000 units. We will look at Mr. Rosen’sRead MoreAdvantages Of The Cost Of Cost1410 Words   |  6 PagesAdvantages of Absorption Costing This Costing system takes both fixed and variable costs into consideration. This becomes very essential for taking the pricing decisions, as the manufacturer will get a clear idea of the profit margin to be made on each sale, as all costs would have been merged into the product cost. †¢ Absorption cost treats all expenses as relevant. The absorption costing notes that, prices determined for products and services must cover the organization’s full expenditure systemRead MoreFactors Affecting The Variable Costing System872 Words   |  4 PagesOne positive aspect of adopting the variable costing system that was described in the text, is some of the staff members do not seem to understand absorption costing, the current costing method. When using absorption costing, income is affected by sales volume and production volume changes. Variable costing may be more suitable for management who do not have a financial background. Because management needs to be able to make informed decisions, it is imperative that the financial information providedRead MoreThe Variable Costing Proposal That Were Presented At The Meeting. What Arguments Would You Add?1432 Words   |  6 Pages1.Critique the various pros and cons of the variable costing proposal that were pre sented in the meeting. What arguments would you add? One positive aspect of adopting the variable costing system that was described in the text, is some of the staff members do not seem to understand absorption costing, the current costing method. When using absorption costing, income is affected by sales volume and production volume changes. Variable costing may be more suitable for management who do not haveRead MoreEffects Of Opening The Catering Business991 Words   |  4 Pageslooked at variable and absorption costing to figure out which method would be better suited for internal and external reporting in the past and future. In addition, I delved deeper to understand the cost breakdown of the new products which helped form a capital budget that will help us determine the validity of opening the catering business. Inventory Effect on Net Income For November, there was an ending inventory of 500 units which led to an operating income of $72,357.03 under absorption costingRead MoreEffects Of Opening The Catering Business992 Words   |  4 Pagesat variable and absorption costing to figure out which method would be better suited for internal and external reporting in the past and future. In addition, I delved deeper to understand the cost breakdown of the new products which helped identify a capital budget that will help us determine the validity of opening the catering business. Inventory Effect on Net Income For November, there was an ending inventory of 500 units which lead to an operating income of $72,357.03 under absorption costingRead MoreWeek 5 Practice Text Exercises Acc 5611259 Words   |  6 PagesACC 561 June 21, 2011 Michael T. Bradford Practice Text Exercises Excel 12-59 Allocating Costs Using Direct and Step-Down Methods (p. 584) Goal: Create an Excel spreadsheet to allocate costs using the direct method and the stepdown method. Use the results to answer questions about your findings. Scenario: Antonio Cleaning has asked you to help them determine the best method for allocating costs from their service departments to their producing departments. Additional background informationRead MoreHeadgear Inc Case Study1955 Words   |  8 Pagespersonal applications. In recent times, the demand for headphones has grown steadily; however, the company’s profits have grown at a slower rate. John Hurley, the chief executive officer (CEO), is concerned about the falling productivity and increasing costs. John is aware that if the profits continue to decline, the result can negatively affect the stock price of the company. A decline in stock prices will hinder the firms ability to raise new investment capital, which is essential in the growth of theRead MoreInventory Management: Planning, Coordination, Controlling Flow of Inventory1471 Words   |  6 PagesAND BLACKFLUSH COSTING) Inventory Management includes planning, coordination, and controlling the flow of inventory into, through, and out of company. There are 5 categories of cost that are associated with goods sold: 1. Purhcasing costs: the cost of goods from supplier and freight 2. Ordering costs: the cost of preparing purchase orders, receiving and checking the goods, matching invoices received, purchase orders and delivery notes to make payments 3. Storage cost: the cost of holding inventoryRead MoreTraditional Volume-Based Product Costing1663 Words   |  7 PagesQ. A. 1. - Calculate the Unit Costs for Product A and B using the traditional volume-based product costing system. The Overhead costs of Duo plc have been allocated using the Traditional costing system in table 1. The Overhead costs have been allocated using Direct Labour Hours (DLH) of production (Direct Labour Hour absorption approach). That is, Total Overhead costs were divided by the addition of all DLHs, giving us the overhead rate per labour hour ( £10.345). This method was used since

Addiction And The Family Addiction - 2026 Words

Addictions and The Family Addiction has been an aspect in the family atmosphere for centuries. The majority of treatment options have focused on the addict and how to help them and not dealing with the issues that the family members are facing as well. When families are faced with a loved one dealing with an addiction they go through physical challenges such as possible abuse, social challenges, emotional distress such as depression, and financial hardships. In the article Family Systems Theory: A Unifying Framework For Codependence, Prest and Protinsky quote C. Whitfield â€Å" The compulsive and addictive behavioral patterns in which these people are engaged seriously affect the lives of three to five people with whom they are closely†¦show more content†¦The biological factors that reasearchers say might influence addiction are genetic factors. Researchers have contributed genetics as a cause since there is â€Å"hereditary biological differences that make some individu als either more or less susceptible to drug dependence than others† (U.S Congress, Office of Technology pg. 6). When there are biological influences involved in addiction, and there is one or more family members that have suffered from addiction there could be the possibility of a genetic deposition for addiction. Psychological factors that could contribute to addiction are; depression, death in the family, and the need to take risks. In the commentary by Roozen et al. Involving Families in Addiction Treatment – The Way Forward he states that â€Å"Research has shown consistently that family members living with an active addiction problem suffer stress that can be severe and long-lasting and are frequent users of the health-care system, presenting with physical and psychological stress symptoms.† (Roozen et al. pg. 105). In our current society people are under more pressure and stress from not only personal problems but work and social issues as well. These issue s may cause people to start using some sort of an addictive substance in an effort to feel normal. A death in the family can be unbearable for some individuals and they will

Departmental Store Free Essays

A department store is a retail establishment with a building open to the public which offers a wide range of consumer goods such as clothing, housewares, furniture and appliances. It typically offers a choice of multiple merchandise lines, at variable price points, in different product categories (known as â€Å"departments† hence the name). Department stores usually sell products including clothing, furniture, home appliances, toys, cosmetics, gardening, toiletries, sporting goods, do it yourself, paint and hardware and additionally select other lines of products such as food, books, jewelry, electronics, stationery, photographic equipment and baby and pet needs. We will write a custom essay sample on Departmental Store or any similar topic only for you Order Now Certain department stores are further classified as discount stores. Big-box stores and hypermarkets have become a modern equivalent to historical department stores. Department stores have a supermarket-type central customer checkout area near the front of the store, or alternatively, sales counters within each department. Department stores are usually part of a retail chain of many stores situated around a country or several countries. Some may be independent retailers, existing entirely independent or as licensed dealers. History Origins The origins of the department store lay in the growth of the conspicuous consumer society at the turn of the 19th century. As economic growth, fuelled by the Industrial Revolution, steadily expanded through the nineteenth century, the affluent bourgeois middle-class grew in size and wealth. This urbanized social group, sharing a culture of consumption and changing fashion, was the catalyst for the emergence of the retail revolution of the period. As rising prosperity and social mobility increased the number of people with disposable income in the late Georgian period, window shopping was transformed into a leisure activity and entrepreneurs, like the potter Josiah Wedgwood, pioneered the use of marketing techniques to influence the prevailing tastes and preferences of society.   One of the first department stores may have been Bennett’s in Derby, first established as an ironmongers in 1734. It still stands to this day, trading in the same building. However, the first reliably dated department store to be established, was Harding, Howell Co, which opened in 1796 on Pall Mall, London.   An observer writing in Ackermann’s Repository, a British periodical on contemporary taste and fashion, described the enterprise in 1809 as follows: The house is one hundred and fifty feet in length from front to back, and of proportionate width. It is fitted up with great taste, and is divided by glazed partitions into four departments, for the various branches of the extensive business, which is there carried on. Immediately at the entrance is the first department, which is exclusively appropriated to the sale of furs and fans. The second contains articles of haberdashery of every description, silks, muslins, lace, gloves, etc. In the third shop, on the right, you meet with a rich assortment of jewelry, ornamental articles in ormolu, french clocks, etc.; and on the left, with all the different kinds of perfumery necessary for the toilette. The fourth is set apart for millinery and dresses; so that there is no article of female attire or decoration, but what may be here procured in the first style of elegance and fashion. This concern has been conducted for the last twelve years by the present proprietors who have spared neither trouble nor expense to ensure the establishment of a superiority over every other in Europe, and to render it perfectly unique in it’s kind. This venture is described as having all of the basic characteristics of the department store; it was a public retail establishment offering a wide range of consumer goods in different departments. This pioneering shop was closed down in 1820 when the business partnership was dissolved. Department stores were established on a large scale from the 1840s and 50s, in France, the United Kingdom and the United States. How to cite Departmental Store, Papers

International Business and Enterprise Union Carbide India Ltd

Question: Discuss about the International Business and Enterprise for Union Carbide India Ltd. Answer: Inroduction: The Bhopal Case Tragedy happened in the early hours of 4 December 1984. This is regarded as one of the most horrible industrial disaster in history. Methyl isocynate, a highly contaminated chemical, came out from the plant of Union Carbide India Limited (UCL) plant located in Bhopal (Dhara Acquilla, 2013). Many people died a dreadful death due to the leakage of the toxic chemical from the plant while many others crippled for their life. Some of the survivors from the disaster are still suffering for their dignity, respect, lives, compensation and rehabilitation. There was hesitation about the effects of the exposure of the gas on the victims. Apart from loss of lives and other effects of the Bhopal tragedy, include loss of cattle, vegetation, partial or full human disablement. The disaster caused impoverishment and disruption of the community (Singh Bhadoria, 2013). The incident raised many issues relating to the adequacy of present laws in Bhopal for multinational companies operating in India. The incident also raised questions related to the unregulated industrialisation in India, insufficient policies of licensing and wrong industrial planning. Additionally, the issue has also raised questions pertaining to the tasks of a parent corporation for the acts of its supplementary company and the compensation and liabilities of the parent company for the actions of the subsidiary company (Samarth et al., 2013). The Bhopal Gas Tragedy exposed the system of security in India. In the case of Bhopal, the feature of protection was overlooked at the time of giving license for position of the plant in the year 1969. At the time of granting the licence to the company, dangers were associated with the inhabitants of the area and shifting of the inhabitants were advised which was completely ignored. It has been alleged that UCL maintained double standards regarding the safety methods of the Bhopal Plant. Computerised pressure, temperature-sensing system and other safety measures were completely ignored in the Bhopal plant (Patel, 2015). Preventive maintenance and safety mechanisms, ideally, should be the first to be curtailed when the UCL suffered monetary losses. However, the factors related to safety were completely ignored for the sake of making profit. Moreover, the Government of India and Madhya Pradesh completely ignored the preventive steps that they should have ideally taken while granting li cense for the manufacturing of the highly toxic pesticides. This tragic incident raised questions relating to the negligence of the state and central government as well (Odysseos, 2015). The legal question after the catastrophe took place was the right to recover claims for the sufferers. Since the incident took place in a company that was a supplementary of the USA based company, it was difficult for the company to file suits for claim. Thus, on 20th February 1985, the President of India passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster (Processing of Claims) Ordinance, to give exclusive rights to the administration to represent the sufferers of the Bhopal tragedy. The Ordinance was replaced by the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster (Processing of Claims) Act, on 29 March 1985. Since the Bhopal Gas tragedy involved many victims, it was not easy for each one of them to file individual claim of the tragedy (Robinson Bell, 2013). With the establishment of this Act, the central government was to adopt the role of parens patraie. This Act aimed at ensuring that the claims arising out of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy were dealt with effectively, promptly and equitably and to the best benefit of the cl aimants. The Act gives authority to the central government as well as exclusive right to represent and act in accordance with similar claims arising out of one situation. Section 4 of the Act, does not give absolute authority to the applicants the right to be characterized by the lawful practitioner (Mittal, 2015). Restrictions are imposed on the Central Government for representation of the people having similar claims out of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. The petitioner challenged the validity of the Act and the Supreme Court declared the Act as valid. The Supreme Court held that taking over the claims of sufferers by the Government was not unlawful. In the opinion of the Supreme Court, the victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy could not match with the standard of the multinational companies nor will they be in a position to take care of their own interest in an effective manner. Moreover, the Supreme Court also held that the shares owned by the Central Government were only factual, as they d id not really own any share in the UCL because the organisations were statutorily independent (Bourdieu, 2014). Claims of Charan Lal Sahu: The claims that were presented by Mr. Sahu are as follows: Infringement of Article 14 of the Constitution of India and the petitioner questioned about the validity of Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster (Processing of Claims) Act, 1985 in relation to this Article (Patel Petlakh, 2014). The applicability of the doctrine of parens patriae was also questioned, as it imposed no limitations on the sovereign authority of the Central Government (Balganesh, 2014). The central government itself held shares in the company thus, according to the petitioner, central government cannot act as a representative against themselves as they were joint tort feasor in the Bhopal Gas tragedy (Dhara Acquilla, 2013). The power conferred on the central government for representing victims having similar claims was held to be inconsistent with the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908. The petitioner held that the Act was violative of principles of natural justice in administrative law. The petitioner requested the Honble Judge to remove the mischief from the Act by applying the principles of statutory interpretation (Jos, 2016). As per UCL the suit should be dismissed by applying the doctrine of non conveniens The Supreme Court opined that the Act satisfied the conditions that were laid in Article 14 of the Constitution of India. According to the court, the sufferers could be termed as a category belonging to a separate class and having the authority of speedy settlement of their claims. Moreover, in the opinion of the Court, the Act entitled the victims to be heard on any settlement that is proposed in nature (Dhara Acquilla, 2013). This was a fair procedure and such a process should be followed in a mass tort action. Thus, the decision of the Act to represent the victims through mass representation is not unfair and disadvantageous (Castleman, 2016). According to the Bhopal Gas Disaster Act, 1985, the Union of India filed a protest against the UCL in the district Court of the United States for compensation of three billion dollars. The Government of India favored the US forum for representation of the suit, as it would lead to fair and speedy trial (Dhara Acquilla, 2013). However, the UCL opposed the petition by applying the doctrine of forum non-conveniens. The UCC supplicated that the case to be heard in India as the forum of the United States is not a sufficient forum and an inconvenient forum for trial. The UCL pleaded this on the grounds of public interest such as Indian public to be able to view the trail; Indian courts will be able to apply Indian law better as compared to United States district forum. One of the major arguments of the UCC in this case was that this trial would cause harm to the citizens of the United States (Mac Sheoin, 2015). Arguments of Union of India: The Union of India submitted many points in argument to the motion of the UCL to dismiss the case on the ground that the Act was unconstitutional and on the ground of forum non-conveniens. The Union of India argued that the Indian forum does not provide sufficient alternative in which the proceedings may be resolved easily. It argued that the Indian court system lacked in procedural certainty and as far as this case was concerned, the Indian court system lacked the capability of handling the situation in an effective manner. Thus, the Union of India wanted the case to be tried in the US forum (Mac Sheoin, 2015). The Union of India held that the UCL is a company that is based entirely on the operations of the United States such as location of the plant, storage and production of the plant and additional safety operational systems. In the opinion of the Union of India, the most relevant evidence against the UCL shall be available in the United States and the evidence pertaining to damages and the liability of the company can be also be made available in the United States, as large part of its operational control was maintained in the United States (Dhara Acquilla, 2013). However, the Court dismissed the arguments of Union of India in relation to the doctrine of the forum non-coneviens. The Court held that India was a sufficient and adequate forum and hence, the case will be decided in India. The Court relied on the Gulf Oil Corp v. Gilbert for rejecting the arguments of the Union of India (Mac Sheoin, 2015). The Supreme Court of India also relied on the decision of C Mehta v. Union of India to decide the tortuous liability that was arising out of this case. Though the decision was challenged by the UCL, however, the plea was not dismissed, instead the amount of compensation was reduced from 350 crore to 250 crore. The Union of India also argued that the corporate veil be lifted of the UCL as UCL had real control over the organisations activities (Dhara Acquilla, 2013). The Union of India also argued that the Bhopal Gas Leak Act was not unconstitutional as it helps in speedy and effective disposal of the matters related to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. The main aim of formulation and establishment of the Act was to ensure that the Central Government takes up the responsibility of litigating in behalf of the victims. With the establishment of the Act, the central government can take the locus standi for filing suits in behalf of the victims. The Union of India argued that the victims of the Bhopal Tragedy were poor and many of them did not have the capability of going to the Courts. Thus, the authority that is provided by the Act to the central government allows the government to demand for compensation in their behalf. Moreover, the establishment of the Act shall help the central government to make a distinction of the suits that have already been instituted and the suits that are pending to be instituted. The Central Government will be able to initiate those issues that have not yet been instituted, with the help of the Act. The Union of India also opined that the Act does not infringe Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, as the Act does not take away the personal advantages of people. Since the Act is for their betterment for the people by choosing a representative in their behalf, thus, it may be said that the liberty of the person is not infringed in any circumstances with the establishment of this Act (Dhara Acquilla, 2013). The Union of India argued that the power of the Central Government is related to obtaining monetary compensation and there are no powers endowed on the Central Government in relation to criminal liability and this provision is clear from the Preamble of the Act. The monetary liability must be in relation to strict, punitive and absolute liability. This means that the Act does not give unrestrained powers to the Central Government (Sharma, 2015). The Union of India also opined that the Act should help in mitigating issues relating to any disaster that may arise in the future involving Indians who do not have the capability of representing themselves in the Court (Izarali, 2013). References: Balganesh, S. (2014). 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